Ap World History Essay

Essay Comparison of the impact and spread of the Islam and Christian religions include religious basics, the way the religions were spread, and where the religions started. To compare the Islam and Christian religions, we must know the religious basics. The Islamic religious basics include their most sacred text, the Koran, and the five pillars of faith. Basics also include the founder, who is the prophet Muhammad. You must not eat pork or drink alcohol in this religion, and must make a pilgrimage to Mecca, an important city, if you are Islamic.The god of the Islamic faith is Allah. The basics of Christianity include the founder, Jesus Christ. The god of the Christian faith is consisted of three; Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. The most sacred text for Christians is The Bible. Christianity beliefs include that you sin, and must redeem salvation through faith in Jesus. Bible study is also something that is encouraged to be done in the Christian faith. Islamic and Christian religions als o have similarities. Both support the idea of worship and prayer to their god (both are monotheistic).They both also believe in the idea of Heaven and Hell. Another similarity is that both religions were founded in the Middle East and were spread by missionaries. These similarities and differences between the religious basics of the Islamic and Christian faith affected the impact and spread of the religions. The start of both religions started in a time when other religions were popular. This affected how it spread. People (missionaries) had to go out and spread the religion so that people would convert and the religion would stay alive.This caused cultural diffusion, so there are many different types (versions) of each religion. The Islamic and Christian religions both started in the Middle East (Jerusalem), which is why it had to be spread. Much of the population at that time was in other parts of the world. Also, some regions of the world already had a major or popular religion, so they had to spread the religions to areas that did not have a major religion. Islam and Christianity impacted the people of the world and the world itself. It gave people a faith and something to believe in.Also, they caused many disagreements between cultural groups. These religions have impacted the world by still affecting people today. Wars, hatred, and acceptance are happening in the current day because of the religions that started so long ago. In conclusion, the Islamic and Christian religions have many similarities and differences. These similarities and differences help us compare, contrast and analyze the religions accurately. Also, the similarities and differences affect how and where the religion is spread and the impact on the people and the world.

Gummy Bear Experiment

Combustion of Gummy Bears Energy is a concept.? Most definitions of the word energy fail to provide its exact meaning when applied to scientific matters.? In science the word energy is a concept that expresses two measurable properties, heat and work.? Here is the relationship of energy, heat and work: Energy Released=Work Done + Heat Released The Law of Conservation of Energy, derived from centuries of observation and measurement, indicates that energy cannot be created or destroyed. But energy need not stay in one place. Energy can be converted from one form to another and can be created in one place and show up in another. Remember that energy, in an open system, can do work on the surroundings or supply heat to the surroundings.? When we express energy as the sum of heat and work, we are making a very specific claim concerning these two properties. They are related. The relationship between heat and work is a close one, so close the amount of heat and the amount of work must be expressed with numerical values having the same units. Within limits, energy may be controlled to appear as heat (as we use electric power to dry clothes in a dryer) or work (the same electric power rotating the drum in the same dryer). Briefly, we define the amount of heat and/or work using two units, the Joule (J), and the calorie. The Joule and the calorie are related as follows: 1 cal = 4. 184J Both units represent quite small increments of energy. We must add 1 calorie of heat to increase the temperature of 1g of water 1 degree Celsius. Our bodies expend about 1J of work with a single heartbeat. For convenience sake, both the Joule and calorie are often expressed in multiples of 1000. We speak of the kilojoule (kj): 1 kJ = 1000J and the kilocalorie (kcal). 1 kcal = 1000 cal Thus we must add 4. 184 kJ of heat to raise the temperature of 100g of water 10 degrees Celsius. Chemical Reactions and the Production of Energy Heat and Work We learned the foundation of thermochemistry rests on the ability to link the amount of energy released or required to the chemical equation for the specific chemical change. We often experiment under conditions where no work is done on or by the system.? The heat, evolved or required is the change in enthalpy. We use the change in enthalpy of the fuel-consuming chemical reactions to arrive at the energy that would be available. The amount of energy available from a given amount of fuel does not vary with how slow or fast we burn the fuel such as in exercise. Enthalpy itself is a state property. All materials have enthalpy as an element of their nature. It is the change in this property through chemical processes which concerns us. The oxidation of 0. 5g of glucose yields a certain amount of energy regardless of how slow or fast the reaction takes place.? In the real world (during exercise for example), energy, work and heat, are produced in complex, changing systems. The combustion of a gummy bear shows how a compound is broken down into an element and other compounds in the presence of a catalyst or heat. An organic carbon compound will combine with oxygen to give off carbon dioxide and water. An exothermic reaction releases different forms of energy. Sugar is a fuel that we use for energy. We can also use it to fuel a chemical reaction. As we heat the Potassium Chlorate this will release O2 gas and leave KCl as it starts to decompose as follows: 2KClO3(s) ? 2KCl(s) + 3O2 (g) This produces oxygen which oxidizes the sugar (glucose) in the gummy bear. This oxidation is incredibly exothermic (-5000 kJmol-1). The reaction is: C6H12O6(s) + 6O2 (g) ? 6CO2 (g) + 6H2O (g) All chemical reactions involve a change in substances and a change in energy. Neither matter nor energy is created or destroyed in a chemical reaction only changed. This experiment is a decomposition reaction a more complex substance breaks down into its more simple parts. One reactant yields 2 or more products. The presence of oxygen in the decomposition reaction is seen when heat energy is added to potassium chlorate, and its decomposition releases O2 and leaves KCl, when bubbles form. Heat is necessary in this reaction because the excess of oxygen, generated by the decomposition of potassium chlorate, will react with the glucose in a gummy bear, releasing a large amount of energy quickly and dramatically. When it comes in contact with the oxygen in the test tube some of the sucrose disintegrates and this releases heat energy. The released heat causes the potassium chlorate to release more oxygen and a positive feedback loop develops. The difference between endothermic and exothermic reactions is that endothermic reactions absorb heat, and exothermic give off heat. Dilution of ammonium chloride is an example of an endothermic reaction. This is the active ingredient in chemical ice packs you can obtain in a pharmacy. Other reactions are melting and boiling which also absorb heat to happen, although you may not consider them chemical reactions. Combustion is a typical exothermic reaction any type of burning. An exothermic reaction occurs if the energy of the bonds formed in the products are stronger (lower energy) than the bonds broken in the reactants. Endothermic reactions require heat. If there is no external source, the reaction gets the heat by cooling to a lower temperature. These reactions are driven by the change in the configuration of the atoms. If the atoms in the product molecules have a less orderly structure than the atoms in the reactants, these reactions will occur even if the cost some energy to happen. Potassium Chlorate is the oxidizing agent and when it is melted; its decomposition provides an oxygen rich environment. A gummy bear is dropped into the liquid and immediately begins to combust. The heated mixture ignites and oxidizes the sugar in the gummy bear in a violent, exothermic reaction. The gummy bear explodes because the combination of one gummy bear which is composed mostly of sucrose with molten potassium chlorate the gummy bear explodes. A surprising amount of energy is released by the reactants and in the process their atoms and molecules rapidly rearrange to form the products carbon dioxide, water and potassium chloride. The products of the reaction are H2O (vapor) and CO2. Ideally, a balanced equation would show sucrose (C12H22O11) being converted to carbon dioxide and water while the KClO3 becomes KCl. But the combustion was incomplete and carbon and or carbon monoxide were additional products. Bibliography † Endo, Exothermic Reactions and Energy. † Ask a scientist, Newton. 4 Jun 2002, Chemistry Archive, Inc. . Dr. Matt Hermes â€Å"Gatorade. † Chemical Reactions, General Chemistry Case Studies. 14 Jun 2002, Inc . â€Å"Chemistry problems. † Chemistry, The Scientific Forum. 8 Mar 2003 . R Gallagher â€Å"Chemistry Made Clear. † GCSE edition. 6 Dec 1997. .

Fibre-reinforced plastic Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Fibre-reinforced plastic - Coursework Example The aerospace, marine, construction and automotive industries are the most frequent users of FRPs. Traditional firms that supply carbon are Cytec, Toray, Hexcel, Formosa Plastics, SGL Group and Mitsubishi Rayon (Vasile, 2002, p.22). FRP composite materials that occur naturally are made from two or even more constituent materials. These component materials usually have differing chemical and physical properties, and they include resins and fibres (ngcc). They remain distinct and separate in the finished product to form the components of the FRP. Most of these composites have stiff and strong fibres in a matrix that is less stiff and weaker. The objective of this is to ensure that the final product is stiff and strong but with a very low density. In particular cases, contractors prefer thermoplastic polymers, which are mouldable after the final production. There has been the development of newer and more advanced forms of ERPs. Some of these improvements include more modern reinforceme nt styles such as nanoparticles and carbon nanotubes and development of high-performance resin systems. Fibre reinforced polymer components have become necessary substitutes or enhancements for development in infrastructure and structures typically constructed using traditional engineering materials, which include steel and concrete. FRP components are non-corrosive, lightweight and exhibit particular high strengths (Starr, 1999, p.34). Traditional firms that supply carbon are Cytec, Toray, Hexcel, Formosa Plastics.

Gender and Play within the Foundation Stage Dissertation

Gender and Play within the Foundation Stage - Dissertation Example In spite of this wide difference in the styles of individual children’s play, it is generally believed that the gender of children greatly influences the style in which they will play, especially for the children under the age of six. I had paid particular concentration to the activities and the roles that each child had taken and the characteristics of the social interactions exhibit by the children like their readiness to listen, share, and to react to the requirements of other children. Aims and Objectives: To identify the role of gender in the play activities of children in the foundation stage. To study the behavior of the children in the play group, particularly when they participate in the same gender group and when they are involved in different gender group To identify the social communication displayed by children while playing in a group Introduction to Gender and Play: It is important to study the role of gender in the play of children and play related behavior. It is well recognized that when the age of children increases, they are more inclined to get engaged in social play, taking place from less to more mature types of social interaction. Still, there are noticeable differences in individuals, in the extent to which children shows their willingness to take part in the peer play. The qualities of children’s play are associated with measures of social motivation and competence, in particular with peers† (Barbu n.d.). One ultimate realm or the channel of development in a child is gender identity. The growth of gender identity cuts across the developmental dimensions related to physical, social, cognitive, and emotional aspects. However, just like all channels of development, it is essential to bear in mind that every child is unique, and can develop more quickly or gradually (than the other children). The theory of development of gender identity explains about how little children learn to realize their gender, and what gender si gnifies in their day to day life.     Young children recognize the distinction between girls and boys, and thus they mark people. As young children grow up, they attain an enhanced understanding of gender identity. Children realize that gender is constant over time. The children in the age of six are aware of the consistency of gender, the thought that they belong to one gender for life. The gender identity of a child appears in the early stages of life and as soon as the gender identity is recognized, the change occurs in the form of play initially. When a child identifies himself or herself boy or as a girl, it paves the way in playing further with other children belonging to that gender. Once the children engage in gender-specific play, they form the tendency to play more with their same gender group and they will play with opposite-gender group, very rarely. This inclination increases along with the growth of the children in the years of preschool. â€Å"Children’s p lay is generally considered to be spontaneous, imaginative and child-initiated. When a progressive philosophy is ascendant in early child education policy and practice, play assumes a privileged position as the key means by which children are considered to develop cognitive, emotional and social competencies† (Irby & Brown 2011, p. 31). The interaction with children at the age of six revealed that, these children do trust that there are playthings that are certain meant only for boys, and that there are some

An economic issue due to interest Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

An economic issue due to interest - Essay Example Before President Bush left the office, he left behind a huge burden on the Americans economy that was used to finance two very expensive wars in the history of America. The debt runs for a period of years until 2011. This is what Obama government had to first deal with when he took over office in 2009. Sound economic policies guide a government to economic growth and expansion. In includes the changes made by the national budget that alters spending and taxes affecting the economy. Fiscal policies play an important role in driving the Americans economy especially after the great depression when the government decided to take a proactive role in guiding US economic affairs. The role of a fiscal policy is to influence macroeconomic productivity levels by increasing or reducing taxes and public spending. Each policy is distinct depending on what the government wants to correct or attain. For instance, a slow economy has high levels of employment, low levels of consumer spending, and les s business. Here, the government will fuel it by reducing the levels of taxation and increase the public spending. More money in circulation will increase consumer spending, boost businesses, and increase employment levels. However, the effects of fiscal policies differ with different economies. This is because in different economies one class or various classes of individuals are affected by a move to cut taxes or increase spending. For instance, in America, arguably only a small percentage pays taxes, which is about one percent of the population. Therefore, a move to increase tax or reduce tax will only affect a small percentage of the population. It is also unknown to what extent a government should get involved in an economy to get it moving, which leaves policy makers on a hanging balance. After Obama joined government, a fiscal policy of its kind was adopted in America to curb

Employee Reward and Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Employee Reward and Development - Essay Example (Armstrong, 2004) According to CIPD, the following are the characteristics of a total reward system : 1. Holistic 2. Best fit 3. Integrative 4. Strategic 5. People-centred 6. Customisation 7. Evolutionary 8. Distinctive. The concept of total reward is fairly recent. The traditional â€Å"Salary administration† approach of the 1960s and the 1970s focused on the competitive attributes of the employees rather than as a strategic/ tactical tool. This approach gave way to the â€Å"Reward Management† line of thought wherein the emphasis was on all employees contributing to the success of the organization. This was a more dynamic approach which brought in non-financial rewards in the form of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, into the ambit of compensation of an employee. The â€Å"New Pay† model (Lawler, 1990) factored in the challenges of a competitive global economy and recommended that employees be paid for the value they bring to the organization. The popular mod els of total reward (Armstrong, 2004) are – Engaged performance model, WorldAtWork, Wyatt model, Towers Perrin model and Armstrong model. Of these, the Towers Perrin model reiterates, almost entirely, the Brown model of total reward. The Brown model (Brown, 2001), depicted above, deals with four elements of compensation – Pay, Benefits, Learning & Development and Work environment. A comprehensive model dealing with both the financial and non-financial components of pay. A good compensation approach to attract, motivate and retain the employee. Addresses the short-term as well as long term needs of employees. Pay component looks at base pay as well as variable pay whereby the employee is assured of a minimum income every month. Performance of the employee as an individual as well as a group is considered. Employee gets a part of profits of the company. This combined with the availability of the shares of the organization brings about a strong sense of ownership. Benefit s which are both individual and family based enables the employee achieve work-life balance. The Pension component assures an independent life style for the individual even after retirement. Learning and Development provides opportunities to develop and grow in the workplace so that the overall productivity is enhanced. Continuous learning takes place and the organization can move toward becoming a Learning organization and develop core competencies and competitive advantages in the market place. Career development helps become aware of the career progress and this helps to plan one’s life in the short term as well as the long term. Succession planning helps bring out the managerial and leadership skills in the individual for mutual benefit of the individual and the organization. Another highlight of this model is the work environment component. Organisational culture and non-financial recognition are highly effective motivation tools. Human dignity is fostered through work-l ife balance. Communication channels, especially grapevine, can be utilized to create a rich organizational climate. From the above, it is clear that Total Reward can be used as a corporate strategy to attract, motivate and retain employees in an organization and derive tremendous advantages over competition in a globalised and highly competitive

Assess the Current Status of Primary Healthcare in the Socialist Essay

Assess the Current Status of Primary Healthcare in the Socialist Marketplace - Essay Example (IBM, 2006) But healthcare for the population at large has lagged behind other markers of success. During the first few decades of the current Chinese regime the resources of the local principality had much to do with access to resources. In rural areas, regional organization at the local level attempted to meet the medical needs of those in the district. In urban areas, the work unit was the most important unit of local governance in terms of health-care access. THE RURAL SYSTEM With the end of the pure socialism of communal living, and the financial erosion of the work-unit system in urban areas, it is more standard for individual inequalities to be the determining factor for healthcare access.(Duckett, 2007) Low-income individuals without health-insurance may be able to cover a few minor medical incidents, but income inequities are likely to bring on financial insolvency, even when patients are able to pay. Where these financial inequities persist in a market with little viable in surance; the legitimate need for healthcare then becomes one more cause of poverty. (Mackintosh 2001: 175). Though efforts are underway to re-establish a cooperative system of health financing. By the late 1970s, The medical system in China was wedded to the over-arching government bureaucracy. Health services were just one more facet of the apparatus of administration and social control in a command economy. A World Bank study has observed that by 1975 ‘almost all the urban population and 85 per cent of the rural’ had a form of insurance that was at least able to provide the most basic of medical services, as well as cost-effective preventives, and sometimes curative treatments. This also entailed financial risks that to some extent, the population shared, in addition to the benefits in life expectancy. (World Bank 1997: 2), (World Bank 1992). In Rural regions the 1960's and 70's saw many of these benefits in the form of vaccines and contraceptives; under the auspices of local control based upon the older system of rural communities funding the majority of their own health services. (Huang 1988; Kan 1990:42). Under the older system, rural areas typically had a three-tiered system of regional organization was responsible for the administration of health-services. There were hospitals at the county level, Health centers for communes that could provide referral services and the supervision of preventative treatments; and the communes. Individual village/communes had health stations staffed by rural practitioners sometimes known as ‘barefoot doctors’ (Bloom & Gu 1997). These local-level commune health centers would report to the district commune-management communist party committee. The next step above them in medical matters was the county-level general hospital, for a higher level of technological support and supervision. But all of these institutions were under the auspices of a county health bureau, for the purpose of administration, rather than actual treatment. The intent was to bring new dimensions of health-care to rural areas previously bereft of them in years before. Attempts where made in the late 60's and 70's, what might be termed the late Mao era, to introduce an apparatus of collective funding, similar to health insurance programs to better assist the rural health-system for most villages. And for

Job cover letter (job application letter) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Job cover letter (job application letter) - Essay Example Diamond and Cessna and can perform 3 different types of Cessna inspections at work within a team in a safety manner. My A&P mechanic knowledge and 3 different types of engine overhaul experiences closely matches your job requirements and A&P mechanic tasks. I can easily handle the job requirements i.e. perform aircraft maintenance and/or repairs in accordance with HAECO Airframe Services, FAA, and customer standards of quality. In a short period, I have shown my ability to various work experience assisting with maintenance operations control with a chief mechanic for flight schools Cessna. I have knowledge in design techniques, knowledge of materials and A&P mechanic tasks typical services like annual and 100-hour inspection, and engine overhauls. I can take up any duties and complete teamwork within future workers. I would be interested in fall position and it would be an honor to work at your company. I welcome the opportunity to discuss any possible mechanic position with you. Am looking forward to a positive consideration. Please feel free to call me at ******** or by email at *********edu. I have hereby attached my CV. Thank you in

Chapter Three Assignment Essay Example for Free

Chapter Three Assignment Essay Grants-in-aids are federal funds provided to states and localities. Grants-in-aid dramatically increased in scope in the twentieth century and were attractive to state officials for various reasons, however, categorical grants are another form of grants-in-aid which are to be used for a specific purpose defined in a federal law, substantively or procedurally, with little to no freedom on how it is to be spent, and often requires local matching funds. The main concern with categorical grants is the huge amount of conflict between elected state and local officials and the specialists of their own bureaucracies as well as those in the national government’s administrative agencies (pg. 131), including a rising public backlash against government unfunded mandates. There are seven common criticisms with categorical grants: The proliferation of project grants conflicts with equalizing governmental resources, restricting categorical aid uses distorts state and local policy priorities, state and local leaders gradually yielding policy initiative to aid granters, the national government not aiding all public services, the fact that states and localities are required to put up matching funds to receive aid, the applications being difficult to apply for and often needing to be resubmitted due to technicalities, and the coordination of hundreds of grants spread across too many agencies (pg. 132). Very few actions for change have been taken in reform surrounding the grant-in-aid system, although general revenue sharing and block grants were introduced as solutions to the major problems of the system, as well as the movement for citizen participation in administrative decision making and achieving better coordination among proliferating aid programs (pg. 138).

Report wine Essay Example for Free

Report wine Essay The consumption of alcoholic beverages has been an integral part of Polish social tradition. It is well above the European average. This trend began during the communist era, and steadily increased through the 1980s. In 1980 the average male Pole over sixteen years of age consumed the equivalent of 16. 6 liters of pure alcohol per year. Nowadays, although consumption remains higher that the EU average, it is on a downward trajectory. Research suggests that exposure to media and alcohol marketing is associated with the likelihood that adolescents will start drinking alcohol, and with increased drinking amongst drinkers. In order to protect vulnerable groups, and especially young people, against harmful exposure to alcohol marketing, an effective alcohol marketing regulation is crucial. Content regulations could, if adequate, protect young people and adults against misleading or deceptive alcohol advertisements. When all relevant elements are addressed, content restrictions can protect young people against exposure to attractive alcohol advertising. Alcohol advertisers always search for innovative ways to market their product. When introducing partial alcohol marketing bans, there is a danger that alcohol is advertised in media, on times or places which are not restricted. Substitution effects are limited by a comprehensive alcohol marketing ban that is integrated in an integral alcohol policy. Alcohol advertising in Poland is subject to legislative regulations under the ‘The Act of October 26th, 1982 on Upbringing in Sobriety and Counteracting Alcoholism’ which ban an advertising for wine and spirits, based on the higher content of those beverages: â€Å"advertisement and promotion in the territory of the country of any alcoholic beverage shall be prohibited, except for beer†. Therefore, only the promotion of beer is allowed on TV and radio, in cinemas, outdoor, in magazines and newspapers and by sponsoring. Additionally, beer advertising is not allowed between 6 am till 8 pm on TV, radio and in cinemas, except for sponsor messages. Wine advertising is allowed on the internet and other new media, direct marketing, promotions from selling points (bars and restaurants) or catering industry and specialist magazines. The Polish spirit industry endorses a voluntary code which stipulates â€Å"concerning the protection of minors, that alcohol advertisements can only target persons who have the legal drinking age (with some other additional restrictions)†. Poland has implemented the AVMSD for all media when it comes to content restrictions. The advertising for all kinds of alcoholic beverages must comply with the following requirements: ?not to be directed to minors and under age persons or to be broadcast in programs for them; ? not to use minors and under age as performers or, in particular, present minors and under age using these beverages; ? the contents of the commercials must not be related to sport and physical achievements or driving vehicles; ? not to maintain that the alcoholic beverages possess therapeutic qualities, have stimulating or sedative effect or that they solve personal problems; ? Not to encourage the excessive consumption of alcoholic beverages or present the abstention or the moderation in negative light; ?not to suggest that the high alcoholic contents contributes to the good quality of the alcoholic beverages. ?not to create impression that the using of alcohol contributes to a social or sexual success. Volume and/or content restrictions can only be effective when adequately supported by a regulatory system. An effective regulation system should meet the following criteria: †¢The legal context must be supporting; there can not be any conflicting regulations on the national or international level that interfere with the alcohol marketing regulations. Like all regulations, self regulations in specific needs a clear legislative framework and enough incentives to function in an effective way. Therefore a legal backstop to support the enforcement of the restrictions should be taken into the regulatory system. A legal back stop makes it possible that when the code is offended (several times) a legal body is put in operation and to be able to sanction adequately. †¢An effective complaint system with easy access to and support from the public. To make sure the whole system of regulations, complaining and sanctions can be watched and monitored by third parties, the whole system should be transparent and information on these topics should be provided to the public on every stage of the process. From the evaluated regulations appears that not all Member State countries have a complaint system that is completely transparent. †¢Independent advertising committee: Evaluation by parties independent from commercial interests (not by adverting industry related or alcohol industry related) but by judges, public health advocates or consumer representatives. Self regulation system can only be effective when a third-party is consulted when evaluating possible breaches, else wise the code is created and abide by the same ones who monitor the compliance. This committee should in the first place protection of the public health and therefore evaluate the advertisements following the interpretation of the general public (with special regard to vulnerable groups). †¢Sanctions that are expected to be most effective are withdraw broadcasting rights and substantial financial penalties. Sanctions that are expected to be less effective are bad publicity or voluntary action. †¢Restrictions should cover the entire range of forms of marketing activities and should be updated regularly and be prepared to interact with future developments. Volume and/or content restrictions in alcohol marketing regulations will only be effective when there is an adequate regulatory system that supports the restrictions. This regulatory system empowers the implementation of the restriction, its adherence and evaluation process. Self regulation codes are written by the alcohol industry and mainly rely on content restrictions that do not prevent young people from being exposed to large volumes of attractive alcohol advertising, promotion and sponsorship. These content restrictions are often ambiguous and open to interpretation. Especially with these ‘vague’ codes, an adjudication system independent from commercial interests with the possibility of using effective sanctions is essential. More practical, the following recommendation to policy makers can be formulated: †¢Recognizing the effects of alcohol marketing exposure on drinking behaviour, decreasing the overall volume of alcohol marketing to which young people are exposed is desired. †¢To decrease the overall volume of alcohol marketing to which young people are exposed, a volume restriction on advertising, promotion and sponsorship is recommended. †¢In order to decrease substitution effects from restricted types of alcohol marketing to unrestricted types of alcohol marketing, a comprehensive ban is desired. †¢When alcohol marketing is allowed, alcohol marketing tools that are difficult to monitor (e. g.alcohol advertising on the internet) or reach many young people should be prohibited. †¢In media where alcohol marketing is allowed, content restrictions that address all attractive elements to young people are recommended. †¢To avoid ambiguous restrictions that are open to interpretation, content restrictions should address all aspects that are allowed to be used in alcohol advertisements instead of what is not permitted. †¢Alcohol marketing regulations should be supported by a strong supporting system that guarantees effective implementation, evaluation and adherence of the evaluation process: For the implementation of alcohol marketing regulations it is important that there are no conflicting regulations on the supra-national or national level and a legal backstop to support the enforcement of the restrictions. The evaluation process of alcohol marketing regulations will be improved by an adjudication committee independent from economic interests from the sale of alcohol or advertisements. The adherence to alcohol marketing regulations should be monitored regularly by the government or a board independent from economic interests of the sale of alcohol or advertisements. A mandatory pre-screening system, and a transparent complaint system and substantial financial penalties will increase the adherence to alcohol marketing regulations. †¢Since it is in the interest of public health, but not in the interest of the alcohol and advertising sector to restrict the volume of alcohol advertising substantially, alcohol marketing regulations embedded by law are necessary to protect vulnerable groups towards harmful exposure to alcohol marketing. †¢Due to the global alcohol marketing activities, harmonization of (statutory) alcohol marketing regulations at the European level is desired. This will decrease the possibilities of alcohol advertisers to reach young people by international channels. Concerning the Consumer Protection has undergone a profound change in recent years. As Poland has introduced the European Community legal system, the scope of consumer protection has been widened and the legal control in this respect has been strengthened. The main body responsible for consumer protection is the Office of Competition and Consumer Protection. In case of wine, Polish legal regulations set out safety norms. The act prevents unsafe products from entering the market and puts a number of obligations on the producers starting with the labelling of the product, research, providing consumers with information allowing for proper assessment of potential threats, and ending with the obligation to inform the president of the Office, should the producer find out that his already marketed product is unsafe. The president of the Office of Competition and Consumer Protection has a right to force withdrawal of unsafe products from the market, to investigate and make decisions about practices which violate consumer rights, and intervene, should an agreement of sale include illegal clauses, which do not comply with law or accepted practice. Such interventions are on the rise in Poland. But, apart from the state of the legal system, the other crucial factor is consumer awareness so far, the cases of consumers suing producers have been few. It can be however expected that consumer awareness will increase and any company willing to conduct business activity in Poland should take it into consideration.

Causes of Stress Among School Teachers

Causes of Stress Among School Teachers The effects of stress upon a persons life can be profound. Different studies have shown that job related stress affects work satisfaction and over all happiness. Increasing stress is becoming recognized occupational hazard in the educational profession. In a country like Pakistan we cannot ignore the situation in educational setting. Teachers` agitations and class boycotts are common practice that shows their dissatisfaction. Both quantity and quality of education are not good. There may be many causes of stress in teachers. To investigate the causes and the nature of stress is of vital importance for improving the quality of education. The present study will be an effort to investigate the causes of stress and to get an orientation of how to explore it on a larger scale. Statement of the problem: The proposed study will investigate the causes of stress among school teachers. Significance of the study: Receiving little practical attention from governmental side education department especially school situation is very bad. Working staff in school is very much frustrated and every one from principal to lowest rank servant complains about his status and neglected condition. It is clear that every one face some kind of stress which is evident in his lake of interest in job. This disinterestedness leads to poor teaching environment and also creates administrative problems for the head of the institution. To improve the situation in school it is must to create stress free environment. But nothing can be improved without knowing the factors involved in creating stress among the staff especially the teachers who are responsible for the better running of the system. So this study will be very important for those who are concerned with the education system; e.g. the following can take help of this study: Heads of educational institutions Education planners Education department Society stakeholders who thinks teachers accountable Delimitations of the study: The research will follow the conceptual theoretical framework developed on the basis of review of related literature. However, the study will restrict itself to primary investigation of government high schools only in district Peshawar only. Hypotheses of the study: The following hypotheses will be tested: there is significant difference between salary of teachers and the level of stress there is significant difference between level of stress and traveling to reach  their place of duty. there is significant difference between personal conflict among teachers and stress in teachers there is significant difference between class size and stress in teachers there is significant difference between level of stress in teachers and lengthy courses there is significant difference between level of stress in teachers and Heavy work load on them there is significant difference between level of stress in teachers and Authoritarian behavior of the principal there is significant difference between level of stress in teachers and lake of rule and discipline in school there is significant difference between level of stress in teachers and lake of community support Sample of the study: Since the research will be restricted to schools of one district only, therefore to see the meaningful effect the sample will comprise 60% of the whole population of teachers in the district. Brief Review of related literature Definition of stress It is not easy to define the concept of stress. Usually it is associated with the less pleasant aspect of life (Sharp, 1977).Hans selye(1956)defined stress as the non specific response of the body to any demand. it was used as a substitute for anxiety conflict and emotional distress. To Bower(1984) it is any force that brings some change in an organism for better or worse. There are many more definitions but their description equates stress with distress. However the literature about stress do not conform this meaning. It refers to a wide range of physiological changes and environment pressures in the health illness literature. It becomes clear when Selye further distinguishes in his definition of stress between eustress, that is an exciting and pleasant kind of demand and distress that is threatening ,unpleasant or even harmful demand. This distinction between eustress and distress lies in the perception of the person. The above discussion leads us to general definition as Sharp has given.Aaccording to him stress is an individual perception and assessment. This definition is broad and means that every thing which we feel with our five senses is a source of stress. The definition also makes it clear that the perception and assessment of the environment is not the same by each individual. For example for a person, moving to a new town might be a source of distress because of some painful loss. The above definition illustrates that stress is the fact of life. We cannot escape from it anywhere. Without stress life means death. So for living a better life we should understand it. Theoretical perspective Stress theory begins with the experiments of Hans Selye (1956) who described stress as biological syndrome; Experiments on rates show that if the organism is severely damaged  by acute non specific cocoas agents such as an exposure to cold, surgical  injury, production of spinal shocka typical syndrome appears, the symptoms  of which are independent of the nature of the damaging agent and represent  rather the nature of damaging agent as such. The apparent state of this syndrome is called stress, which brings biological changes in the organism. Selyes observation was that stress reaction was general and occurred in response to any number of different stimuli. He saw this reaction as an adoptive syndrome of this organism in response to external stress. The form this syndrome takes place is called general adaptation syndrome (GAS). GAS consists of three phases,(i) alarm reaction (ii) resistance (iii) exhaustion. In the first stage the system assesses the situation and prepare for fight or flight but the overall resistance is to a stressor initially decreases. During the resistance the body becomes adapted to the presence of the stressor and begins to resist its impact. It may mean fighting or controlling ones self trying. The exhaustion starts if the stressor continues and the body reaches the end of its capacity for resistance, the result may be a collapse, illness, mental disorder or even death. In general the current rese arch suggests that the stress response is not a simple biological response to no specific stressors but rather a complex, interrelated process including the occurrence of stressor, how it is seen physiologically by the organism, under what circumstances the stressor occurs, how the organism characteristically reacts and what the resources are that the organism has, available for dealing with the stressors. The concept of a general stress reaction may be viable but only if we assume that it represents the sum of a great many psychological and physiological factors rather than a specific all or non response to the occurrence of a stressing event Empirical perspective Stressful life events:- Halms and Rahi (1967) developed the Social Readjustment Scale for measuring the intensity of 43 life events. Newman (1983) found that the intensity of stress depends on the persons impression of the life event and his coping strategies. Two different interpretations have been offered about why life events may be tied to physical or psychological disturbance. One view suggests that all change is stressful and the source is not important. The total amount of life change in a given period should predict subsequent stress responses. The second view focuses on undesirable or negative changes as the primary stressors. In a number of studies, this factor i.e. the undesirable change was more closely related to disturbance than was total change. Apparently there is not a direct relationship between occurrence of crises events and the observed physical and psychological disturbance of crises state. It is difficult to know when a crises event is about to occur. Many of t he important life events occur by change. Two factors will influence the extent to which crises event s lead to crises states. One is persons interpretation of the event. The second is the effectiveness of the persons coping strategies. The hassles of daily life: there are countless minor stress events that have low intensity but greater frequency. According to Lazarus ,et al (1985) these daily life hassles are important sources of stress. They have developed hassles scale on which individual indicates the extent to which he has been hassled by common event during the past month. The list of these hassles includes household, time pressure, inner concern, financial and work. The effects of these hassles also apply to health. Work as a source of stress:- work can also be a source of stress. The factors that make work stressful are work overload, work under load, employees role and change in the work environment. Stress in teachers:- work stress has been recognized as occupational hazard of teaching and its causes have been fairly well established(Smith and Milstein, 1984). According to Kyriacou(1987) teachers experience more work stress than most other occupational groups and according to Pankhurst(1982) they are more distressed than the general population. Nagy and Davis (1985) have found that junior and secondary school teachers in one place are about as stressed as their colleagues elsewhere. At organizational level there are many factors that contribute to teachers stress. Students discipline: managing disruptive students is invariably among the top ranked items in teacher stress. Among various manifestations of school discipline problem i.e. disruptive students, threats of personal injury, verbal abuse, and assault on colleagues are represented three or four times, in the list of top ten stressors. This is evident from the various surveys of teaching stress (Goodlad 1984). Bloch (1978) studied the effects of violence on teachers and compared their symptoms to those of combat neurosis. These teachers suffered from anxiety, insecurity, nightmare, fatigue, irritability, headaches, ulcers and number of other emotional and physical symptoms. Lazarus (1966) pointed out that anticipation of a threat may be as stressful as an actual stress. According to Lortie(1975) teachers who fail to keep control over students soon find that teachers are intolerable work. A related issue is that of students lack of interest. According to Goodlad when teachers were asked, what is this schools biggest problem? they answered, Lack of students interest. Teachers do feel enormously frustrated and deprived of crucial sense of gratification when working with students who are uncaring and unconcerned about learning. These students are not only personally frustrated but they also contribute to a class tone often leading to further discipline problem, that make it more difficult for a teacher to do effectively in the class room. Administrative insensitivity: The complaint is usually linked to the issues of students violence and school discipline. Many teachers think administrators are neither supportive nor sensitive to students violence and do little about enforcing rules or promoting a secure learning environment. Teachers feel that administrators are too content with their proper work in offices and avoid dealing with problem students. Stress has been found to be significantly related to principals participation in problem solving and not supporting the teachers (Jackson, S.E. et.al 1986) Involuntary Transfers This source of stress is much related to teachers. Being a principal my self I witness this phenomenon in teachers community in everyday life. Many teachers are not satisfied with their place of duty and a large number of them complain this when they are prompted and transferred to other station which is not their choice. Such transfer notices demoralize teachers and they think about retirement. Large class size Classrooms generally require structure children attention and the most effective classrooms are generally those in which teachers can individualize lessons to meet the needs of each child. The task becomes difficult with the increase in size of the class. Because large class size provides fewer opportunities to interact individually with each student, the teacher feel less involved and less effective. Moreover with the increase in class size classroom management becomes more difficult. Overcrowded classrooms then are seen weakening the likelihood of effective teaching. Inadequate Salaries Teachers also complain of their low salaries. They compare their salaries with other professional groups and their work at school level with that of the teachers at college level. This situation becomes stressful for teachers. To meet their expenditure they search for other ways. They do private tuition, which is also a blame for teachers to earn from their own school students. Parents and society at large expect from teachers and invest them with an enormous degree of responsibility. Politicians continually declare that our children are our nations future. In response to such statement teachers ask, where are the financial rewards that equate with such important task? This situation shows that inadequate salary is a source of stress for teachers. Role ambiguity, Role conflict and Role overload Role ambiguity is associated with a lack of clarity regarding workers rights, rsponsibilities, methods, goals, status and accountability. Although in some ways teachers role is defined quite explicitly, that is to teach children well, in other ways with regard to school discipline and accountability ambiguity arises. Role conflict occurs when inconsistent, incompatible or inappropriate demands are placed upon an individual. Sutton (1984) pointed to common sources of role conflict for teachers. They are expected to provide quality education to their students, yet they are not allowed to use the best instructional methods or curriculum materials available. They are responsible for maintaining discipline but do not have the authority for doing so. Teachers may also experience role conflict when they are told to perform task that is outside the domain of their professional work. Role overload is one of the common complaints of those who, with their own needs, interest, motivation and achievement level are a big number, for any one person to handle. Role overload may also occur from the efforts necessary to work effectively with children who are seemingly unprepared or unmotivated to attend school. Sutton has pointed out two distinct, though equally dysfunctional responses to work overload. In the first case teachers feel forced either to do low quality work or to not finish the work at all which is psychologically as well as physiological problem. Stress results from either response. This is a general list of work related stressors for teachers. In any given school a number of idiosyncratic stressors impinge upon teachers, their existence is a junction of the type of individuals who have taught and who have learned in that particular setting. Societal Factors Unconcerned parents; parents beliefs, an integral part of the educational process and parental support of childrens work, strongly influence school success. The teachers generally welcome parental involvement in schools but majority parents are not supportive to teachers. Unsupportive parents come under two major varieties; not involved and too involved. In the first group are those parents who are not available.Incapable, uninterested in their childrens education and those who put whole responsibility of educating of their children on teachers. In the second group are those parents who have decided that the real education is only possible if parents constantly monitor what occurs in the school. These parents feel that their child is being overlooked by the teacher and that only constant pressure on their part will rectify the situation. Although all parents are not of such kind but generally parents are perceived by teachers as either unhelpful or unavailable or intrusive. Public criticism; the typical comments about teachers from public include: they have much offs, get much for the little they cannot do anything else etc. charged with the educating and socializing so many children teachers are reminded of their failures and rarely praised for their successes. This evaluation of teachers by the public in such a way make them stressful. Public demand for accountability; apparently it is reasonable to say that public should hold teachers accountable for the success of their work. The public pay taxis ad pay teacher salaries and have right to expect some performance levels. However from the prospective of teachers the demand for accountability is too often the means by which teachers autonomy and sense of professionalism are trampled upon by those who know little about education and educational evaluation. Most troubling to teachers is their feeling that society expects them to educate, socialize every student who comes to school regardless of the social, economic and psychological difficulties some of these students bring with them. If parents, psychologists social workers have failed why teachers should be accountable for all the problems. This demand of accountability is also a source of stress for teachers. Procedure of the study Based upon the objective of the study an occupational stress inventory will be developed regarding job related stress events. In developing the items in the inventory discussion with the local teachers and study of the related literature will be focused. Teachers opinion about stress inducing problems will be given more importance. Like previous researchers Likert Scale will be used for obtaining data about job related stress. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bloch, A.M. (1978). Conflict Neurosis in inner city schools, American journal of Psychiatry, 135, 189-192. Bowers. (1984).n being unconsciously influenced and Informed. American Journal of Psychiatry, 135, 1 Goodlad.J.I. (1984). A place called school, New York ,McGraw-hill. Holms, TH Rahi (1967). The Social Readjustment Scale. Journal Psychosomatic Research, 11, 213-218. Jackson, S.E, et al. (1986). Towards an understanding of the burnout phenomenon Journal of applied psychology, 19 (4) 630-640. Kyriaco, C. (1987). Teacher stress and burnout: An international review of Education and Research 29(20) 146-152 Lazarus, R.(1978). A strategy for Research on Psychological and Social factors of hypertension. Journal of Human Stress, 4, 35-40. Lortie, D. (1975).school teacher. Chicago: university of Chicago press Nagy, D. Davis (1982). The relationship of Type A and B personalities in Farber B.A (1991) Crises in Education, California Jossy-Bass inc. Newman, J, E. Beehr, T.A (1979). Personal and organizational strategies for handling job stress: a review of research and opinion, Personal Psychology, 32, 1-43. Pankhurst, F. (19820 Stress, health and absenteeism in teaching, National Education, 19 (1) 39-51 Selye, H. (1956). The stress of life. New York. McGraw Hill Sharp, R.F. (1977) Thrives on stress. London Souvenir Press Smith, D.Milstein, M.(1984) Old wine in new bottles. Urban Education, 39-51

Shakespeares Rebuttal to Possibilities in Sonnet 96 Essay -- Sonnet e

Shakespeare's Rebuttal to Possibilities in Sonnet 96      Ã‚  Ã‚   Shakespeare's apostrophic "Sonnet 96," one of the sonnets written to the blond young man, is arranged similar to a rebuttal in an argument or debate." In the first three quatrains, he describes several possibilities, such as the youth's winning nature and potential for mischief, only to refute them in the couplet." He begins with concise one-line points in the first quatrain, moves to a comparison utilizing the entire quatrain in the second, and transitions to two-line arguments in the final quatrain, evoking the idea of a logical, organized argument." Along with reason, however, are the romantic tones of the couplet, which refutes the statements made in the douzain." The conditional nature of the sonnet parallels the individual conditional statements made in the quatrains.      Ã‚  Ã‚   Shakespeare uses end-stopped lines in the first quatrain that mimic the brisk style of a debate or quarrel to establish the arguments for and against the blond young man." He explains, "Some say [his] fault is youth" (1), while others think that youth is his "grace" (2)." The parallel structure of lines one and two deftly contrast the range of opinions on the subject's character."" Along with youth, Shakespeare claims that some view "gentle sport" (2) as a grace as well, playing on the double meaning of "sport" as both "pleasant pastime" and "amorous dalliance or intercourse" (OED)."" It appears that Shakespeare falls in this category, saying in line three that people of all stations and classes love the young man's graces and faults, because he "makest faults graces" (4)." Line four possesses a fault in being hypermetric, whichà ·like the young man's faultsà ·can b... ...tradictory to the remainder of the sonnet, as well as the fact that the rhyme of the couplet returns to the b rhyme of the first quatrain." Perhaps this implies that Shakespeare is among the people who "say [his] grace is youth and gentle sport" (2).""" However, the amorous connotation of "sport" in line two fits well with the romantic couplet, which serves as a rejection of the suggestions of the rest of the sonnet, and instead seems to suggest that the young man be content to restrain himself for the love of the poet.    Works Cited The Oxford English Dictionary."" 2nd ed." Oxford:" Clarendon P, 1989." 26 Feb." 2001." http://www.asu.edu/lib/resources/db/oed.htm Shakespeare, William." "Sonnet 96."" The Norton Anthology of English Literature." Eds." M. H." Abrams and Stephen Greenblatt." 7th ed." 2 vols." New York: Norton, 2000." 1:" 1031-32. Shakespeare's Rebuttal to Possibilities in Sonnet 96 Essay -- Sonnet e Shakespeare's Rebuttal to Possibilities in Sonnet 96      Ã‚  Ã‚   Shakespeare's apostrophic "Sonnet 96," one of the sonnets written to the blond young man, is arranged similar to a rebuttal in an argument or debate." In the first three quatrains, he describes several possibilities, such as the youth's winning nature and potential for mischief, only to refute them in the couplet." He begins with concise one-line points in the first quatrain, moves to a comparison utilizing the entire quatrain in the second, and transitions to two-line arguments in the final quatrain, evoking the idea of a logical, organized argument." Along with reason, however, are the romantic tones of the couplet, which refutes the statements made in the douzain." The conditional nature of the sonnet parallels the individual conditional statements made in the quatrains.      Ã‚  Ã‚   Shakespeare uses end-stopped lines in the first quatrain that mimic the brisk style of a debate or quarrel to establish the arguments for and against the blond young man." He explains, "Some say [his] fault is youth" (1), while others think that youth is his "grace" (2)." The parallel structure of lines one and two deftly contrast the range of opinions on the subject's character."" Along with youth, Shakespeare claims that some view "gentle sport" (2) as a grace as well, playing on the double meaning of "sport" as both "pleasant pastime" and "amorous dalliance or intercourse" (OED)."" It appears that Shakespeare falls in this category, saying in line three that people of all stations and classes love the young man's graces and faults, because he "makest faults graces" (4)." Line four possesses a fault in being hypermetric, whichà ·like the young man's faultsà ·can b... ...tradictory to the remainder of the sonnet, as well as the fact that the rhyme of the couplet returns to the b rhyme of the first quatrain." Perhaps this implies that Shakespeare is among the people who "say [his] grace is youth and gentle sport" (2).""" However, the amorous connotation of "sport" in line two fits well with the romantic couplet, which serves as a rejection of the suggestions of the rest of the sonnet, and instead seems to suggest that the young man be content to restrain himself for the love of the poet.    Works Cited The Oxford English Dictionary."" 2nd ed." Oxford:" Clarendon P, 1989." 26 Feb." 2001." http://www.asu.edu/lib/resources/db/oed.htm Shakespeare, William." "Sonnet 96."" The Norton Anthology of English Literature." Eds." M. H." Abrams and Stephen Greenblatt." 7th ed." 2 vols." New York: Norton, 2000." 1:" 1031-32.

FAITH AND REASON DURING THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURY :: Essays Papers

FAITH AND REASON DURING THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURY During the seventeenth and eighteenth century many ideas were placed forth that ended up changing peopleà ­s faith and reason. These new ideas challenged humanà ­s conception of the universe and of oneà ­s place in it. They challenged the view of a person, and they also challenged the belief of the economy. There were many scientists and philosophers during this time period, Francis Bacon, Renà © Descartes, John Locke, Nicolaus Copernicus, Isaac Newton, and Adam Smith to name a few. All of these people contributed to the change in peopleà ­s faith and in their reason. They were given new ideas and a new way to look at life. Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) helped change peoples reason. People believed that most truth had already been discovered. And those who have "applied themselves to the invention of arts have but cast a glance or two upon facts and examples and experienceÃâ€"."1 Bacon believed that these people never really worried about the facts. He believed that these people were afraid that movements and changes in philosophy would end in assaults on religion. They were also afraid that their investigation of truth might be dangerous to them. But he believed "that all knowledge is derived from sense experience, observation, and experimentation"2 and that there was much left to be discovered. Bacon believed that we are servants and interpreters of nature. What we know and what we do is only what we have observed of natureà ­s order in fact or in thought.3 Renà © Descartes helped change the idea of how the person is looked. He also came up with a way of deductive reasoning. He believed that "human beings were endowed by God with the ability to reason and that God served as the guarantor of the correctness of clear ideas."4 Descartes believed in "I think, therefore I am."5 He believed that everybody had the ability to think for themselves. Descartes provided a way of deductive reasoning, a way to arrive at an answer. The first step of this process is not to accept anything to be true unless it was not clearly true. The second step is to divide each of the difficulties into as many parts as possible. The third step is to conduct thoughts in order. And the final step is to make detailed reports to make sure that nothing is omitted.6 This method was influential well into the

Chris Mccandless Character Analysis Essay

One may say that Chris McCandless was an arrogant fool considering the decisions he made throughout his short life. Others may say he was an incredible inspiration and should be honored beyond his death for his choices. McCandless may have made some questionable choices within his journey, yet he was nothing less of an inspiration to those who feel that they have not ‘found themselves’ and deserves respect for the impact he has made. Although he is respectable, he also had ample flaws that may have led him to his tragic ending. Instead of being seen as narcissistic and arrogant, McCandless could be seen as an idealist. He believed that reality was past the everyday life that he was living, and he could find reality within a transcendent phenomenon. Although he was told multiple times not to go through with the lone journey to Alaska, McCandless stuck to his decision and did not take into account the advice he was given by many. Unlike most, McCandless was not influenced by the people in his life. He strived on his own idea of life rather than what is taught and learned throughout society. The indifference McCandless felt in his everyday life was what led him to pursue his inspirable journey that was scrutinized by Krakauer and others. Even as a youth, McCandless showed signs of being an idealist. Walt McCandless, Chris’s father, took Chris on a backpacking trip every year. One year Walt took Chris and his youngest son to climb Longs Peak in Colorado. When they reached an elevation of 13,000 feet, Walt decided it was time to turn around. â€Å"Chris wanted to keep going,† Walt recalled. â€Å"He was only twelve then†¦ If he’d been fourteen or fifteen, he would have simply gone on without me (Krakauer page 109). † This ambition Chris displayed to climb the mountain even when he was young showed his different outlook from most younger children to the more challenging aspects of life. This must have been a point of realization for Chris. His journey had been in the making even from such a young age. Gaylord Stuckey claimed â€Å"It was something he’d wanted to do since he was little (Krakauer page 159). † These idealist-like ambitions had reflected on the choices Chris made as an adult. Chris McCandless had refused to just fit in with those around him. Instead of listening to what others had for an opinion on his choices, he did what he wanted to do. Even when McCandless was offered luxuries such as food or a place to live, he would only stick around for a very short period of time, then be on his way. McCandless’s father even noticed the strive for difference in his son. â€Å"He didn’t think the odds applied to him. We were always trying to pull him back from the edge,† said Walt McCandless. The way Chris refused to blend in with society even with the pressure surrounding him to fit in was a respectable quality in his personality. Many of those who connected with Chris on his trip also saw him as a respectable man. Even though he had refused their offerings and left quickly without much communication, they never saw him as arrogant or prude. Even though McCandless had been incredibly respectable, he also had weaknesses, or flaws. One of these flaws was over-confidence. Before his trip to Alaska, Chris donated $25,000 to charity, ditched his vehicle and most of his possessions, and burned the rest of his cash. By doing this, McCandless demonstrated his idealist quality. Instead of thinking of reality, he made impulsive decisions to satisfy his spiritual self. McCandless also did not prepare for his trip as he should have. He went without bringing a map and brought very little amounts of food with him. By refusing to bring a map, he made it a very difficult trip back for himself that may have cost him his life. He had been offered supplies by multiple people he had met on his way, but refused most of them. McCandless relied too greatly on himself and nature for a trip that needed well thought out planning and devising. For enduring what many could not imagine, pursuing his childhood intents, and refusing to fit in with society, Chris McCandless was nothing less than respectable. Even with his flaws that led him to his death, he stayed true to himself and didn’t give up. All in all, Chris McCandless deserves recognition and respect for his enthusiasm and inspirable story.

Catherine and Heathcliff’s Passion in Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte Essay

1.3 Themes in Wuthering Height ‘Wuthering Heights’ is a novel of Emily Bronte, known for the famous destructive love between Heathcliff and Catherine. Before I start, I would like to ask: Is love the major issue in the book? Or does the position in society outweigh the feeling of love? I found many other interesting themes which are discussed along the whole length of the novel, among which love, revenge, and social class are the main themes in the book and the racism, nature, the obsessive and the degradation are the minor themes, but not less important as the others. In the information below, I will present the detailed themes which strongly affected me and I will try to answer those questions during this chapter. I will start discussing love and passion in the book. It seems that Emily Bronte put the accent on the strong feelings between the characters and love is the most powerful one. Love appears in the form of several types and with different intensities in the novel. But there is a special type of love, the one between Heathcliff and Catherine, which is the most beautiful story in English Literature. Their love became an archetype because of their desire to become a single soul, to take care of each other, no matter what; the type of love in which the lovers feel as if they were the only persons on earth. I will start by referring to each type of love I found in the text. The love between Heathcliff and Catherine, as I said before, is a beautiful one, but it is also a destructive love. Everybody was against their love because they had a strange love; they were violent, doing unusual things which were not accepted by the others. Compared to this kind of love, the love between Catherine and Edgar was civilized and constructive. From my point of view, in their love, I found peace and comfort on all sides. Also, their love was accepted by the others. The love between Cathy and Linton is another type of love. It’s like a father-daughter love. I consider that Linton wants Cathy to marry him because he wants to protect her, and love her as a ‘mother’. I think that Linton didn’t receive the love that he wanted from his parents and that’s why he was doing that with Cathy. And the last but not least, the love between Cathy and Hareton is the most beautiful one. Their love is open-hearted and innocent and constitutes an equilibrium between all the loves above-mentioned. Their love contains the passion without destructiveness between Heathcliff and Catherine, the fineness and the tenderness without inequality between Edgar and Catherine. The social class is another important theme in the story. In the Victorian period, a great emphasis was placed on social classes and it was, somehow, a family heritage. For all that, people accepted their positions in the social hierarchy and they did not fight to have more than that, because of the different society at that time. Also, the people were judged by this aspect, and not by their personalities and the kindness of their souls. And this is a false thinking, because, from my point of view, the destiny and the character of Heathcliff would have been different, if the people had behaved gently with him. For example, the children born in a rich family in that time will be rich until the end and the same thing with the poor ones. This thing doesn’t change at all, I remain at the same level since my birth. But in the Emily Bronte’s novel, the characters tried to change their social class and a strong example for this is Heathcliff. I think that the author chose to put the characters in this lower class because she knew that they could change and the class position was a motivation and an impulse for them to change. Certainly, the social class is very well defined in the book, except for Heathcliff because when he returns rich, he surprises everyone, but his personality was the same; he has the countryman’s personality. The saying ‘you can’t judge a book by its cover’ fits Heathcliff perfectly well. Also, the two regions where the action takes place are built concordantly with the lower and upper class. Thrushcross Grange is visibly superior to Wuthering Heights. The last one is a farmhouse, in which live normal people, belong to the lower class. Heathcliff, a poor orphan boy belongs to Wuthering Heights, together with the servants to the lower class and Catherine and Isabella belong to the upper class. So I think that is a connection between the social class, revenge and the richness. I consider that Heathcliff returns rich because he has a purpose: he intensifies the love of the two women with this change because he knows that the betrayal of their social class means the betrayal of their family. From my point of view, this next theme has a connection with the previous one. This paragraph is about the human races but more especially, it refers to Heathcliff’s race. When he arrives for the first time in the house, he is not easy on the eye; he is described as a black man, even if he isn’t, people behave with him as if he were a slave, as if he has no heart in the chest, in one word, he is nobody for the others. He is also named gypsy by Lintons and Hindley for many times in the novel: ‘He is a dark-skinned gypsy in aspect’, ‘how he could bring that gypsy brat into the house’, ‘Take my colt, Gipsy’. He is judged in all situations by his appearance because it seems that, as the situation in these latter days, the idea of discrimination is present everywhere. Also, during his evolution in the novel, I think that he tries to demonstrate how he really is, but the people are focused more on what is said about black people. He tries to establish his own position in society, he starts from the bottom and he deals with many obstacles and difficulties to be on the top, but his effort is in vain; the only character, who is close to him even from the beginning, is Catherine, the love of his life. Even if he succeeds in becoming what he wanted, he is not completely happy, because of the others. He tries hard to be socially equal with the others, to be integrated into their society, to live in a free world, far away from inequality, discrimination or exploitation. I cannot judge Emily Bronte’s way of thinking regarding all those aspects, because it is the same thing today. People talk more and more about races equality, freedom, but no one is doing anything about it. This is an international problem, which will last for many years and it will continue to appear books about this subject because this subject is an inexhaustible source of information. Revenge is one of the main and predominant themes in Wuthering Heights. It seems that the revenge didn’t bring anything good, only worse because this was the cause of the many characters’ death. I will start by saying about Heathcliff. Nelly, the narrator of the book, tells the story of Heathcliff and his revenge. He ruined Hindley by taking Wuthering Heights; also, he refused Hareton’s education. His marriage to Isabella was also a weapon of revenge because Catherine married Edgar Linton. Catherine’s ghost makes Heathcliff worse. He tried to separate Cathy and Linton because he thought they didn’t deserve to be happy. But Heathcliff figured out in the end that revenge is useless. He gives up, and only when he finds the true love and peace. He was finally happy in the other world. Also, Catherine’s revenge is not good. She blames Heathcliff and Edgar Linton for her early death, and also, I think that her double personality killed her because she didn’t know how to divide between them and this thing drives her mad. ‘You and Edgar broke my heart, Heathcliff! [†¦] You have killed me – and thriven on it’. She had a miserable death. She remained captive on earth for 20 years because she couldn’t find peace and happiness in revenge. Hindley hated Heathcliff since they were children. He denied Heathcliff’s education and love for Catherine and this led to bankruptcy. After the all above-mentioned, the revenge didn’t help with anything to achieve the characters’ goals. Another theme concerns the forces of nature and I found the storm and calm, which are transposed in two kinds of characters and houses; Wuthering Heights with the people who live there represent the storm and Thrushcross Grange and its inhabitants represent the calm. This difference can be seen very clearly and often in the characters’ actions. But, at a certain time, this is changing: the calm becomes a weakness, it is not a characters’ quality anymore and the storm produces spiritual nervousness. Also, I think that the title is very suggestive because it indicates the constant weather from there and the atmosphere from the inside, which is almost the same thing for me. Nevertheless, the characters, Catherine and Heathcliff, have a relation with the time too. I can say that their relationship looks like the weather from outside: it is tumultuous, bad and changeable. I think that the obsession of Heathcliff can also be an important theme. And this theme is in connection with the theme above-mentioned. Heathcliff feels for Catherine two different feelings: love and hate (which is expressed by his desire for revenge). Since they were children, Catherine was the center of Heathcliff’s life. And because they couldn’t be together, his obsession advanced more and more. Somehow, his obsession with revenge is completed by the obsession with love, and that’s why he couldn’t get over until the end. Also, another example of Heathcliff’s obsession is the moment when Catherine marries Edgar Linton and leaves Wuthering Heights for Thrushcross Grange, Heathcliff cannot resist the temptation of seeing her and he watches her from outside. He is obsessed with her because they have a very strange relation and Heathcliff never felt this for anybody else. And the last but not least theme discussed by me in this subchapter is the characters’ moral degradation. From my point of view, the characters have degraded because of several reasons; some of them because of the strong power of revenge, love and the desire to achieve their purpose irrespective of the means used. This theme can be easily seen in the scenes referring to hell and heaven; at the beginning with the description of Mr. Lockwood’s Wuthering Heights as ‘a perfect misanthropist’s Heaven’ and in the end with the ghosts’ apparition walking on the marshy hills. Also, Catherine and Heathcliff can be compared with supernatural forces: Heathcliff can be Satan, who is determined and unyielding regarding his desires; and Catherine can be compared with a fallen angel, who has a gradual transition from Light to Darkness. In conclusion, there are many themes in this book and I would like to talk about them and each of these themes has an important part in the book. When I read again the book, I found many interesting things which I couldn’t discover in my first reading. I can swear that there is more about them because this is a book full of surprises and also, I think that things like these can happen in real life too. I consider that this book contains elements, motives, and themes which make from this book, a masterpiece of Emily Bronte and also of the Victorian period. I chose to talk about the themes in Wuthering Heights because this subchapter will help me to introduce the next chapters regarding romanticism and realism in the book.

“Beowulf”, “The Odyssey” and Other Related Epics Essay

An epic is best described by the Merriam-Webster Dictionary as a long narrative poem in elevated style recounting the deeds of a legendary or historical hero. Epics like â€Å"Beowulf† and â€Å"The Odyssey† are perfect examples of this definition; they are each centered on the deeds and triumphs of their heroes, Beowulf and Odysseus. All epics are similar in a way that they are made up of elements. One major element of the epic is its themes. In all epics, the themes are what make and mold these narrative poems, they descriptively outline the story. Most epics, like â€Å"Beowulf† and â€Å"The Odyssey†, have themes like battles, homecoming, identity, recognition etc. Through themes like these, morals, values and traditions relating to the main characters’ customs and culture can be introduced to the reader. The setup and purpose of the story, through the theme(s), can also be introduced. Not only are the themes identity, battles, recognition and h omecoming related to â€Å"Beowulf† and â€Å"The Odyssey†, but they are also linked to other epics as well. â€Å"The Odyssey† is best described as â€Å"a guide to the Greeks, a guide to literature and a guide to the complexities of society, identity, and home†. There were many themes, both universal and timeless that thoroughly revealed the main ideas and issues of this legendary epic. The first and more stressed theme in â€Å"The Odyssey† is identity. â€Å"In Grecian times, the identities of human beings were associated with their properties, their name and their heritage or past†. A Greeks’ household was the foundation of his or her identity. Being that Odysseus was lost in search of his seized home, until he found it, he was considered a â€Å"nobody†, or as he called himself, a â€Å"no-man†. Like his home, Odysseus has to reclaim his great name as well. Without a name a man has no meaning or value. Not only does Odysseus search for his identity, but his son, Telemachus searches as well. Without knowing anything about his past (his father, Odysseus) Telemachus feels that he doesn’t know who he is or what he’s truly worth. Odysseus and Telemachus battle with their identities for the majo rity of the epic, which further explains why â€Å"identity† is one of the main themes. Next, the theme that relates to the theme of identity is homecoming. This theme supports Odysseus’s long journey home. â€Å"In Greek, the tales of returning home were called Nostoi†. To the Greeks, homecoming meant â€Å"reclaiming heritage, identity and loved ones† . There were many obstacles (Gods, people etc.) in the epic that tried to deter Odysseus from reaching his home once again. In the epic, Homer shows the reader how Odysseus feels by saying this, â€Å"sitting on the seashore and his eyes were never wiped dry of tears, and the sweet lifetime was draining out of him, as he wept for a way home†. By including the ideas of loneliness and longing to be home, Homer creates the theme of homecoming. Another important theme in â€Å"The Odyssey† is battles. As well as searching for his identity and home all throughout the epic, Odysseus also had to defend himself throughout the epic. The battles in epics help build the character. They almost always result in victories and turn the main character(s) into legendary heroes. In â€Å"The Odyssey† there was not a battle that Odysseus lost, he even defeated the almighty Poseidon, god of the sea, by returning home. He had a lot of help from the goddess of wisdom, Athena. Without the main idea of â€Å"heroes† along with battles and villains, epics would be undefined. Battles, as a major theme in all epics, are needed to keep the story moving. Like all the themes in â€Å"The Odyssey† each is linked to the other. The theme that is linked to the most important one in this epic, identity, is recognition. Recognition in this epic focuses on Odysseus and his disguise (an old man) that is given to him by Athena to help him reclaim his kingdom and his wife. Homer shows how Odysseus plots and schemes to take back everything he once owned. The whole idea of this theme is as he goes about with his disguise, only several of those closest to him recognize something familiar about him and see that he, the old man, is Odysseus. Although, his wife Penelope did not know until he turns back to his original being. Also, recognition is gained when Telemachus doubts that Odysseus is his father. But, Odysseus eventually persuades Telemachus to accept him as his father. As stated before, in Homer’s epic, â€Å"an identity cannot be claimed until recognition of that identity from others is claimed first†. Like â€Å"The Odyssey†, â€Å"Beowulf† is also a legendary epic that includes the themes identity, homecoming, battles and recognition as its primary focus. In â€Å"Beowulf†, the themes homecoming and recognition are very closely related. When Beowulf returns to Geatland, he is greatly rewarded for his works. He reunites with King Hygelac and tells of his great adventures. Recognition is shown by Beowulf giving most of his treasure received to the King, and in return is awarded with treasure of his home from King Hygelac. Beowulf was praised and glorified for his homecoming(s) to Geatland and his return from his victories over Grendel and his mother. He wasrecognized as a â€Å"true hero†, an Anglo-Saxon hero to be exact. In â€Å"Beowulf†, Kingdoms acknowledged Beowulf by showering him with treasures, feasts and celebrations. Like God, to the Geats and Danes, he was worthy of all praises. He earned his recognition. That’s what the homecomi ng of a hero is all about, heroes being rewarded for their works and receiving the uttermost respect. Recognition is the actual reward received from the heroine act, whether its treasures or shouts and chants of the heroes’ name. Just as the themes homecoming and recognition in â€Å"Beowulf† are related, the themes battles and identity relate as well. The battles that Beowulf fight, in a way, reveals the person he really is and what he’s all about. His triumph in each battle shows the reader that he is a true hero and that he’s willing to fight to be recognized and to gain a sense of self and national pride. â€Å"Beowulf† begins with a battle and ends with a final battle against the dragon. Being that he fights for the majority of the epic, and his adventures are molded from his battles, this must be included as one of the main themes. Yes, â€Å"Beowulf† and â€Å"The Odyssey† do share similar themes but each theme has a different significance for each epic. Each theme stands for something different between the two. The significance of the theme identity in â€Å"Beowulf† is that his battles help to reveal who he is all throughout the epic. Beowulf knows that he’s a hero and that he’s brave. He defeats all of the villains and saves the day, he just wants other to realize this too. But, in â€Å"The Odyssey†, Odysseus and his son Telemachus have to search for their identi ty. The theme recognition in â€Å"Beowulf† has the significance of Beowulf being rewarded and recognized for his great works. On the other hand, the significance of recognition in â€Å"The Odyssey† is for Odysseus to keep himself hidden as a tool to help him reclaim his kingdom. The significance of the theme battles is very similar in each epic except Beowulf fights because he wants to be the hero (and he is), but Odysseus fights because he has to, although he too becomes a hero like Beowulf. Odysseus is trying to return home to his family and regain his identity but Beowulf is trying to gain recognition. As far as the theme homecoming, they each get the same response upon their return. The people that respect and love them are happy to see them once again. Both Beowulf and Odysseus return home with adventures and stories to tell. Likewise they each receive treasures. Beowulf receives gifts and Odysseus receives a gift that’s more precious than gold or treasures to him, his family and his kingdom are once again in his arms. During the course of my research, I realized that the themes of â€Å"Beowulf† and â€Å"The Odyssey† relates to other epics also. These epics are â€Å"The Iliad† by Homer, â€Å"The Aeneid† by Virgil, â€Å"Gilgamesh† by an anonymous author and â€Å"The Rape of the Lock† by Alexander Pope. These epics are noteworthy as of proving my thesis because first, they are all epics and second, they all share at least one theme with â€Å"Beowulf† and â€Å"The â€Å"Odyssey†. â€Å"The Iliad†, a Homeric epic like â€Å"The Odyssey† is very popular and well known by many. Also it is very similar to â€Å"The Odyssey†. It has most, if not all the same themes and was written by Homer as well so it basically has the same setup as â€Å"The Odyssey† but more so focuses on war. This epic can best be described as a story within a story. Along with â€Å"the Iliad†, â€Å"The Aeneid†, an epic by Virgil, greatly focuses on identity and homecoming. this too is also a popular epic. Next, â€Å"The Rape of the Lock† is a mock epic by Alexander Pope intended to â€Å"lampoon† or make fun of epics. He presents the whole idea of battles, homecoming, recognition and identity like the â€Å"usual† epics but in a comic al way. And last but not least, â€Å"Gilgamesh†, an epic by an anonymous author is one that takes the reader through a world of adventure. Although all four pieces of literature I selected are epics containing more than one theme, my focus is on one specific theme for each that relates to â€Å"Beowulf† and â€Å"The Odyssey†. The theme that I’ll most focus on for â€Å"The Iliad† is the theme recognition. This theme in â€Å"The Iliad† is closely related to the glory and celebration of war and is † the predominance of military glory over family†. As far as recognition goes, the characters more so recognize the pursuit of glory and honor than anything else. True, like every normal person the characters love their families but â€Å"they honor the pursuit of â€Å"kleos†, â€Å"glory† or â€Å"renown† that one gains in the eyes of others by performing great deeds†. War and recognition are the key factors in this piece of literature. The characters in this story focus so much on war and recognition because Homer wants the reader to see that he sugg ests that the characters (mortals) try to live their lives as horribly as possible so that they can be remembered well. â€Å"For if mortals’ physical bodies and material creations cannot survive them, perhaps their words and deeds can†. Homer is trying to stress the fact that the mortals should make a huge impact on their life, something that no one will forget and what better way to do it than with recognition and glory. In this epic, the characters usually end up in a situation where they have to choose between their family and their glory. And of course by most, glory is chosen. Hector, one of the great warriors in the Trojan army chooses to win the great glory of his father no matter the cost, even though he could orphan his only son. Hector knows that if he fights among the front ranks then he will end his quest for kleos and receive great recognition from all. Hector willingly sacrifices his life. No other theme can best describe the entire epic, â€Å"The Iliad†, like recognition. Homer put so much emphasis on it that it’s very obvious to see that recognition honor and glory (kleos) are â€Å"The Iliad’s† main themes that overshadows all the others. Although it’s not one of the main themes, identity still is considered a theme in â€Å"The Aeneid†. The theme identity in â€Å"The Aeneid† is very similar to the theme identity in â€Å"The Odyssey†. In this epic, the first part discusses the wanderings of the Trojans from Troy to Italy. While traveling, the â€Å"wanders† were considered homeless. Ancient culture suggests that â€Å"a homeland is one’s source of identity†. So being that they did not have a permanent home, like Odysseus, they were † no-men†. Being homeless means that one is not stable with his or her situation as well as identity, in this epic this caused the men to suffer. Like Odysseus, the Trojans were in search of their identity and for them alone, a place where they belonged. But Odysseus knew where he belonged, at home with his family. Each time they landed on a different island they would get frustrated because they were not sure if it was their place (which was Italy) . The only reason why identity is considered a theme in this epic is because the Trojans were unsure of themselves. It took them some time to reach their desired destination. It is also considered a theme because again as a part of ancient culture, to have a home is to have an identity. Another theme that is related to â€Å"Beowulf† and â€Å"The Odysseyà ¢â‚¬  and other epics is battles. The theme battles agrees with the epic â€Å"The Rape of the Lock†. This narrative piece of literature is not the â€Å"usual epic†; it is considered a mock epic because it lampoons the themes and oral traditions of the usual epics. Being that â€Å"The Rape of the Lock† is a mockery of the usual epics, everything about it is silly and strange, yet still makes sense. For example, Cosmetics, clothing and jewelry substitute for armor and weapons. One of the battles is an intense game of cards, which of course results in the victory of the protagonist, but even still that isn’t the point. The point is to take the usual themes from the usual epics and twist them around to show mockery. â€Å"The majority of the great battles of this epic are related to gambling and flirtatious tiffs†. Although the characters in this epic fight over silly things, Alexander Pope still gets his point across to the reader. Finally, the last epic that has a theme that relates to those of â€Å"Beowulf† and â€Å"The Odyssey† is â€Å"Gilgamesh†. Homecoming is the theme that best defines this epic more than the others do. Like in most epics, Gilgamesh went on a journey and like Odysseus, on his wa y home a goddess propositions him. When he refuses her proposition, the goddess delays his homecoming by sending enemies out to destroy him. But of course Gilgamesh defeats them and returns to his homeland Uruk. When he gets there he praises the town walls and worships the land as he walks. This epic is a bit different as far as homecoming than â€Å"Beowulf† or â€Å"The Odyssey† because once Gilgamesh finally reaches his home, he doesn’t care about honor, glory or recognition, he’s just glad to be alive, glad to see something as simple as the walls of his town once again. But of course like the other epics he does reunite with his loved ones and friends. The only problem is that this theme (homecoming) for this epic isn’t as solid as it could have been, there was no big feast or treasures waiting for him at home, just his precious town walls and loved ones. In conclusion, not only are the themes identity, battles, recognition and homecoming related to â€Å"Beowulf† and â€Å"The Odyssey†, but they are also linked to other epics as well. â€Å"The Iliad†, â€Å"The Aeneid†, â€Å"The Rape of the Lock† and â€Å"Gilgamesh† each contain one of the themes that their stories concentrate on the most. â€Å"The Iliad† is mostly related to recognition because the characters recognize the pursuit of glory and recognition more than anything else in their lives. â€Å"The Aeneid† mostly relates to identity because the Trojan soldiers are homeless which leaves them searching for an identity due to their culture. â€Å"The Rape of the Lock† concentrates on the mockery of the â€Å"usual battles† of an epic as well as other themes and â€Å"Gilgamesh† somewhat focuses on the theme homecoming because of his eagerness to return home and all of the obstacles and villains he has to face to get there. Although each epic was surely different, they all still had something in common, they all had themes that related to those of â€Å"The Odyssey and â€Å"Beowulf†.

Into the Nature of Relationships in Different Cultures

Relationships Discuss research into the nature of relationships in different cultures. (9 marks + 16 marks) In Western Cultures, it has been found that relationships are voluntary, temporary and focus on the needs of the individual as due to the predominantly urban settings in which we live in, we are able to (on a daily basis) interact with a large number of people. Western cultures therefore appear to be characterised by a high degree of choice in personal relationships and a greater ‘pool’ of potential relationships.Non-western cultures however, have less choice about whom they interact with on a daily basis, meaning that interaction with strangers are rare and relationships are frequently tied to other factors, such as family or economic resources. In societies with reduced mobility, (predominantly non-western cultures) arranged marriages are common as love is expected to grow due to the fact that it is not seen as necessary for marriage.Arranged marriages seem to wo rk well and make good sense as divorce rates are low and Epstein (2002) found that perhaps about half of them report that they have fallen in love with each other. Myers et al. , (2005) studied individuals in India living in arranged marriages and found no differences in marital satisfaction in comparison to individuals in non-arranged marriages in the US. This is also supported by Gupta and Singh (1982) who studied 100 degree-educated couples living in India, 50 of who had chosen their partners and 50 of who had their marriages arranged for them.The couples were asked to indicate how much they liked/loved their partners and it was found that love and liking was high in love marriages but decreased whereas love increased in arranged marriages and after 10 years exceeded love marriages. However, this study is difficult to generalise as it studies only a small sample and so cannot be generalised to the wider population. It therefore lacks validity. However, in some adapting cultures s uch as China, there has been a noticeable increase in ‘love matches’ as the Chinese are currently attempting to move away from traditional ‘arranged’ marriages.Instances in which parents dominate the process of partner choice in china have declined from 70% prior to 1949, to less than 10% in the 1990s. Xioahe and Whyte (1990) studied women in love marriages and found that they were more satisfied than those in arranged marriages. Western cultures are also seen as individualistic due to their focuses on individuals rather than groups, with individual happiness and pleasure seen as fundamentally important. On the other hand, non-western cultures are seen as collectivist cultures as people are encouraged to be interdependent rather than independent.Moghaddam et al. (1993) claim that the cultural attitudes of individualist cultures, are consistent with the formation of relationships that are based on freedom of choice, whereas collectivism leads to relationship s that may have more to do with the concerns of family or group. Norms and rules act as guidelines for behaviour and influence how we act out any given relationship. One such norm that plays a key part in personal relationships is the norm of reciprocity.Ting-Toomey (1986) found that in individualist cultures, reciprocity in personal relationships tend to be voluntary. In collectivist cultures however, it is more obligatory. In such cultures, failure to return a favour is seen as a failure of one’s moral duty. In Japanese culture, for example, there are specific rules about gift-giving and reciprocating, whereas n such formal norms exist in Western cultures. Argyle et al. ’s cross-cultural comparison of relationship rules in different cultures did find support for some predictions but failed to support others.However, a problem with this research is that the list of rules was formulated in the UK and may have failed to include rules that are specific to a particular cu lture such as Japan. Research on cross-cultural differences in norms and rules is important to be able to conduct cross-cultural relationships successfully. Knowledge of the norms and rules underlying cross-cultural relationships is an important aspect of any attempt to understand and improve relations between different cultural groups within a host country. Finally, relationships are difficult to study scientifically.Laboratory experiments, through the manipulation of isolated variables, are seen as the most rigorous way of establishing cause and effect, and he best way of furthering our understanding of the processes involved in human relationships. However, as Hogg and Vaughan (2008) point out, people do bring their cultural ‘baggage’ into the laboratory. Although cultural background may be seen as a problematic extraneous variable to some researchers, it is clear that culture itself is an important variable that influences the relationship processes being studied.